They might also be great combined with early-stage detection via ctDNA.

But in late-stage patients, the effectiveness is limited because the host immune system is compromised.

Several landmark mRNA cancer vaccine trials by BioNTech and others have pointed in this direction.

In vivo reprogramming of T cells might be the next frontier. In fact, the BioNTech founders are moving to a new venture, but it's unclear what their thesis is.